Evolution of Indian Administrative System –

 introduction

In the course of studying the history of a country, the systems formed in the history of command, the efforts made to broaden the physical, economic and intellectual powers of the people should be taken into account. We need to study the systems and systems that have been going on for centuries, which have helped the development and survival of mankind and people to move forward more efficiently. The lessons learned from the successes and failures of past systems guide the progress of humanity. Governance is also an integral part of this evolutionary process, so all the factors that influence the history of a country influence the nature of governance. In general, a political system uses governance as a tool to achieve its goals and implement policies. Although there are frequent changes in the political system, the administrative system remains unchanged.

Indian administrative system has a long history. Today's system is a legacy of nearly 200 years of British imperial rule. However

Rule of India

When the British rule started in India, the country had to rely on the then Mughal system of governance. Also, during the Mughal period, some of the ruling systems of the Mauryas and Guptas continued. Due to factors such as many foreign invasions, many royal families ruling the country and changes in the government, the administration in the country has been undergoing changes from time to time.

In order to understand the nature of the administrative system of India, it is necessary to have a broad understanding of the important historical developments related to administration. However, in this lesson, the Mauryan rule of the ancient era, the Gupta rule, the Mughal rule of the medieval era, and the developments and highlights of the British rule in the modern era have been discussed.

Mauryan rule

-Kotaryani's Arthasastra serves as a standard for the study of governance in ancient India. Renowned as a statesman The late Kautilya's 'Arthashastra' can be said to be the first of the Indian political texts. Although there are differing arguments among historians as to the period to which Kautilya's Arthashastra belongs, all agree that it is an ancient treatise on the principles and practices of kingship.

Arthasastra is divided into 15 chapters, 149 chapters and 180 chapters. Each letter describes the main point of the passage. The subjects related to the study of government administration are explained in four chapters. This discussion appears in the first, second, fifth and sixth chapters.

In the first chapter "Vinayadhikaram" the duties of the king as an administrator, the education of the Rajput, the appointment of amatyas and other officials, the day-to-day activities of the king are mentioned. In the second chapter 'Presidential Campaign', various powers related to the state, matters related to governance, construction of Durga, construction of capital etc. were included. The fifth chapter 'Yogavritamu' deals with the affairs of the Prime Minister regarding the precautions to be taken by the king in emergency situations, salaries of various servants working in the kingdom, job appointments, post-retirement allowances. Briefly, the sixth chapter elaborates the 'Mandalayoni Saptanga Siddhanta'.

Kautilya, who not only formulated the principles and theories of politics and governance, but also became skilled in implementing them, various documents mentioned in Arthasastra, became famous as practical and practicable. For today's student of public administration studying the Artha Shastri, Kautilya's understanding of the affairs of governance is evident when he realizes how sensitively and minutely Kautilya explained the Palava rules.

Kautilya's Saptanga theory

How strong he is 'as if a cart could not be driven by one wheel'

Despite being a kingdom, the kingdom was not ruled alone. The Arthasastra states that seven 'Prakrits', or digas, are essential to the kingdom. These are the organs mentioned by Kautilya.

1. Swami (King): A king should be born in a noble family, should have divine wealth, wealth of intellect, like visiting the elderly, should be interested in Dharma. Kautilya states that a king should have all these qualities such as truthfulness, gratitude, broad vision, enthusiasm, interest in learning to do things without delay, power to dispel misconceptions, power to understand, retention power, skill in many studies, long-sightedness, far-sightedness. A king should win the love and affection of the people and rule. For this the King has to be given special training. It is also the king's duty to protect the people from robbers and robbers.

2. Amatyadu (Minister) : In Arthasastra two words Amatyadudu and Mantri are used. Amatya was next in rank to the king. The main responsibility of the minister was to advise the king on various matters. Kautilya opined that the king's advisors should not be more than three or four. A person appointed as a 'minister' was required not only to be personally upright but also to be able to guard the secrets of the cabinet.

3. Janapadam (territory inhabited by people): Citizens are not mentioned anywhere. Janapada means a place where people live. He stated that the kingdom should have immense natural resources and that the nation would be rich in prosperity when the people paid their taxes properly, were loyal to the king and obeyed the king's orders.

4. Durga (strong capital); Durga is the main organ of Janapada. It is the central location of the army and is the source of strength for the defense of the country. There are four types of Durgas in Arthasastra. Andurgam, Parvata Durga, Edari Durga, Vanadurga, Alaparvata Durga are useful for protection of people, Desert Navadurga are useful for animals to run away and hide in times of danger.

5. Kosha (Treasury): Arthasastra says that the treasury of the state should be filled with money so that the financial needs of the state can be met. Kautilya explained that adequate money should be collected to receive 1/6th of the people's produce in the form of taxes, gold and metals should be collected and the treasury should be kept to meet the needs of the state for a long time in case of emergencies.

6. Staff (army); A king should always keep a strong military force under his command.. The whole success of a king depends on his army. A skilled and patriotic army should be at the disposal of the king.

7. Mitrudu (Friend): In a political system like Salegudu, friends are a must for a king. The king's friends should be princes of other kingdoms as well as eternal ones.

It can be said that the evolution of the administrative system of India began with the rule of the Mauryas. Mauryan rule lasted from 322 BC to 237 BC. Chandragupta Maurya, Bimbisara and Ashoka were chief among the Maurya emperors, the Maurya Empire established by Chandragupta Maurya perished within half a century after Ashoka. There are many historical evidences related to Mauryan rule. Kautilya's Arthasastra in it. Indika by Megasthenes and inscriptions on stone pillars are important. The Mauryas considered 'Artha Shastra', a standard text on political and economic matters, as a guide for their administration.

Characteristics, Nature of the Kingdom: Understanding the nature of administration during the Mauryan period requires an understanding of the objectives of the kingdom. The main objectives of the state can be stated to be the protection of the state, the security and welfare of the people, and the economic welfare programs.

During the time of the Maryus, the kingdom was generally a royal system. State power Everything was concentrated in the hands of the king. Although he was the military leader, legislator, chief executive and supreme judge, the king did not act as a tyrant but adhered to patriotism and public opinion. the king 'Paurasabha' and 'Janapada' are two on officials

Public assemblies were controlled. These data are useful to know the public opinion on the administration. Mantri Parishad: Council of Ministers to advise the king on all important matters

There was a cabinet called In this four or five important advisers were ministers. Each minister looked after some departments. 'Samanarhu', was the finance minister and the head of the administrative system. He was assisted by senior officers named Saksharhaksha and Sutradhyaksha. The Construction Minister is called 'Sannidhata'. He looked after the construction of stores, buildings, treasuries, jails and preserved all the records of Paraskriti. Kautilya explained that the king should not decide the affairs of the state by himself without the advice of the ministers and the opinion of the majority of the ministers should be the guide for the king.

There were some advisors to advise, guide, encourage and warn the king on all policy decisions, not just the cabinet. Thus during the Mauryan period the king consulted the ministers on all important matters. The king administered the administration with the help of a centralized body of employees at different levels of hierarchy.

Administrative system

During the Mauryan period, there was a systematic and elaborate government machinery to manage the constitutional functions. There were branches with clear functions. These branches are properly managed by competent employees.

There was a huge army during the Mauryan period. There was a 30-member board to control the army. It is divided into 6 branches with 5 members. There were army officers named Senapati, Prashasti, Sayaka and Makhya.

The spy system had a prominent place in the Mauryan administration. With the help of this spy system, the king used to know the affairs of remote parts of the kingdom.

An interesting thing in Mauryan rule is the appointment of special officers called 'Dharma Mahamatra'. They used to travel extensively throughout the kingdom to find out the effect of government policies on the people, collect complaints made by the people in administrative affairs and report to the king. Besides, it was also their responsibility to protect the moral values of the people.

The Mauryan economy was mainly based on agriculture. Land system was the main source of government revenue. On traders, artisans, export India

Duties were levied on imports. Most of the revenue of the state was spent on the salaries of the officials and the maintenance of public works. About one-third of the total income is earmarked for public works.

Elaborate arrangements were made during the Mauryan period to bring justice to the people.

State governance

For administrative convenience, excluding the capital Pataliputra, the Mauryan Empire was divided into a few states like Ujjain, Taxila, Kausambi and Suvarnagiri. Usually the members of the royal family were the heads (governors) of the states. The head of the district was an officer called 'Pradeshika'. States were further divided into districts and tribes. Avapadas were supported by competent ministers who were popular among the people. They used to send reports to the king from time to time about the developments in the states. In addition to this, there were individual officials who gathered public opinion on various departments of the administration and reported to the king. They were various employees to collect revenue and expenditure in the kingdom, details of taxes, settlement of disputes and details of births and deaths. They played a very important role in the Mauryan system of governance.

Local Govt

During the Mauryan period, towns, cities and 'civilization' were under the control of the city head. The Mauryan capital of Pataliputra was ruled by a town council. It had 6 Sanghas with 5 members each. Each community looked at certain aspects. There were various officials to assist the city head.

Village governance had fixed boundaries for each village. A village had a village system with an officer called "Gramika" and 'village headmen'. The economic condition of the village was self-sustaining. Agriculture was the main occupation of the people. For the betterment of the artisans there were trade associations called srenu. Villages used to have village tribunals made up of the village headman and some other village heads to settle minor disputes.

The Mauryan empire expanded. Chanakya Chandragupta can be said to be the first empire builder in India. The Mauryan period not only expanded but also centralized employment system for popular governance and state activitiesSystem

Formed. A monarchy that adheres to the dharma of the country, an imperialist system of government, centralized employee management, public welfare programs, strong local governance, an extensive military intelligence system, effective judiciary, etc. Gupta rule

After the Mauryan Empire, many kingdoms were formed and fell in the country. Gupta Samrajya is the most notable among them. AD Gupta rule continued from 300 to 350. Chief among the Gupta kings were Chandragupta, Samudragupta... _ Chandragupta Vikramaditya, Skandagupta. The Gupta period is regarded as the traditional 'Gangetic Golden Age' of Indian history. Allahabad inscriptions help to know about Gupta kingdom system and administration. The famous Sanskrit poet Kalidasa belonged to this period.

Administrative system: During the Gupta period, the king played a central role in the administrative system. He had vast powers and privileges, ministers, governors and chief officers were all appointed by the king. Both of them were responsible to the king. Rana is the representative of Dharma in the kingdom. To punish the criminals, to do justice to the people, to take measures for the welfare of the people, to maintain security in the kingdom. He was responsible for protection from foreign aggression. As a protector and promoter of national culture, the king worked for the development of arts, literature, education and religion. Although the king was omnipotent, there were constitutional and moral limits to his absolute power.

The cabinet called Mantriparishad assisted the king in administration. The Prime Minister was called 'Mantri Makhali'. The priest was the king's chief adviser. There were other ministers for agriculture, industries, trade, religion and foreign affairs. The members of the cabinet used to inform the king about the public opinion on various matters. A public platform called 'Patti' existed during the Gupta period.

The Gupta period had a very efficient administrative system. Among the various employees, 'Kumaramatmudu' was the head of authority. There was another employee called 'Uparika'. Also many other officials were also working at the central state level.

into 'uparika' and appointed as the head of each. Some of these were ruled by vassal kings. Others were under the control of the caste under the direct rule of the Emperor. Each 'Bhukti' was further divided into 'Vishaya' sections and contained in Avam. Besides these, in some areas it is called Desa, Mandal, Bhaga

It seems that there are administrative divisions. During the Gupta period there were district administrative societies with different types of representatives. Apart from officials, various professions were also represented in it. Pataliputra, Ayodhya, Ujjain are held by city councils. Its head is called 'Nagarika. He was appointed by the Regional Committee.

During the Gupta period the village administration was autonomous. Village affairs are looked after by the village head called 'Ma'. Elites also played a vital role in village administration

to do Professional associations of rural artisans also flourished. During the Gupta period, the common law system was based on the Nyayasutras prepared by the Brahmins. An organized body played an important role in the administration of justice. Society was classified on the basis of caste. to the priests

They used to give gifts of land and houses. And some were given villages. On these

They will enjoy the coming chapter, they will have some administrative and judicial powers

Thus during the Gupta period the administrative machinery was mostly managed by the vassal king. Hence the Guptarajas did not need an extensive workforce.

Popular monarchy, efficient administrative system, strong military police, judicial system, decentralization of power can be mentioned as the main features of secret government. It was during this era that a middle-class "feudal system" emerged between the kings and the people for the affairs of land. It was also in practice to give them some powers and collect taxes from them. Historians are of the opinion that if during the Mauryan period the administration was carried out from the top, during the Gupta period the administration was done from the lower level. Mughal rule

After the Maurya Gupta emperors, efforts were made in various aspects to make India a sovereign country, but only the Mughals were successful in this. The Mughal Empire was founded by Babur in 1526 and Aurangzeb in 1707.

Almost died. Babar, Humayun, Akbar, Shah Jahan, Gaurangzeb were the chief among the Mughal rulers, but during the fifty years of Akbar's reign, Mughal government was not only given a form but also the system of governance was systematically standardized.

Sher Shah's Reign: After Babur, Sher Shah Shah, an Afghan and a descendant of Sur, ruled India for about fifteen years after defeating Humayun in battle. During the few years of his rule, he reformed the government departments and worked for public welfare. The best of both Hindu and Muslim traditions were reflected in his rule.

During Shersha's reign Sultan was the all-powerful. He was assisted by Prime Minister Wazir, General Ministers and Chief Justices. The Prime Minister's main duties were the control of revenue and expenditure and general control over the government machinery. Other ministers were looking after the affairs of the country, royal administration and military affairs. The sultan was the supreme judicial authority. He had a chief quazi as his assistant. The chief munisif in sarkars and 'amin' in parganas used to investigate and judge criminals. Army used to maintain national defense and security. The land use system introduced by Sher Shah was exemplary even in later times. Geology is determined based on land measurement. Land was divided into classes based on soil type and crops. A third of the harvest was collected systematically.

Farmers were given land titles during Shersha period. This title specifies the rights of the farmers on the land. Also used to take "Kabuliyat" from farmers. Kabuliyat refers to the responsibility of a government graduate farmer. In times of drought, they used to give loans to the farmers and provide them with facilities such as tax exemption. For ease of administration, the empire was divided into sarkars, sarkars into parganas and parganas into villages. The chief shildar, the chief munisif, the chief workman in the Sarkars, and in each pargana Shiktar, Amin, and Poddar were the servants who were their assistants. As in ancient times, village elders' councils used to manage the administration in villages. Patwaris and Chowkidars used to attend these meetings. Villagers were responsible for crimes committed in villages.

Sharei takes due care in appointing employees for effective governance. He introduced a reformed currency system. He planted trees for people's use. He dug wells. He built Dharamshalas for the comfort of travelers. Although he was in power for a short time, Sher Shah's style of administration was highly praised. MUGHAL RULE SYSTEM Mughal rule was a combination of Indian and non-Indian elements, which the eminent writer Majumdar termed as "Persian Arabic system of governance in Indian territory". Domestic changes and additions were made to the principles of government formation, religious system rules, taxation system, departmental arrangements, conferment of titles etc. The features of Mughal rule are mentioned below.

Raju: The Mughal government structure was based on the royal system where the king was the sovereign. The powers conferred are extraordinary and limitless. He is the head of the state, the head of the government, the head of the legislature, the head of the army and the supreme judge. Islamic traditions and cultures only show control over him.. However, if the king wants to, he can deny any holy justice or law. According to Abul Fazal, a famous writer of that time, the king acted according to his intentions.

Emperor Akbar, who strengthened the Mughal rule system, established many institutions and administered the rule through them. He established an organization called 'Jarokha-e-Darshan' and established direct contact with the people. It was an open court that functioned every morning in which people irrespective of caste, creed, rich, poor, male or female used to plead their merits and demerits to the king. 'Jarokha' as an institution continued even after Akbar. But Aurangzeb removed it as he felt that this practice led to person worship.

Another institution founded by Akbar was 'Diwan-i-Khan-Om'. He used to manage the day-to-day administrative affairs of factories, cattle inspection etc. Various matters relating to other branches to the emperor in the form of reports. These are through this organization. Author U. D. Dey has stated in his book 'Mughal Government' that it was very important in the Mughal system of governance.

like Another major institution of Akbar's time was "Ghusal Khana". It was a small Rajdarbaru - he consulted only those loyal to the emperor on matters of state affairs. It was used to plead with the king about important matters that could not be revealed in open court. The councils for war were also convened in it.

These three bodies supervised the work of various heads of departments and assisted the Emperor in carrying out multifaceted functions. Apart from this, the administration was constantly on alert due to the emperor's frequent travels in the country and issuing various orders.

Central Government - System of Administration: The Mughal government can be described as a centralized autocratic monarchy. The entire administrative machinery was the driving force of the Emperor, the Diwan or Wazir (financial affairs), the Mir Bakshi (military affairs) and the Sadr (religious and judicial affairs) to advise the Emperor on various matters. There was a four-member Council of Ministers, Mir Saman (Supplies and Industries). These four ministers were considered as the pillars of the kingdom. Let's know about them in detail.

A. Vakils and Divama During Akbar's reign, the Prime Minister was called Vakil. The Finance Minister is called the Wazir or Diwan. The office of Wakilu, under Bhairan Khan, Akbar's mentor and guardian, played an important role in the administration of government. Vakile used to act as the ruler. As the importance of the office of advocates gradually declined, the supremacy of Diwans began. In later times the Wazir was also given the headship of other branches. He acted as chief advisor to the Emperor in revenue and seed matters. He is the second position in the governance system after the Emperor. All other chiefs were subordinate to the vizier as associates.

That. Meerakshi: He was an officer of the military department. He was the chief advisor to the emperor on war and military matters. It was through him that the appointees were appointed. He used to submit a comprehensive report to the emperor about the activities of various officials and royal representatives in the country. The emperor's security arrangements were also under him.

e. Sadr: Sadr is the authority who looks after religious affairs. He was responsible for the functioning of educational institutions, the distribution of donations in cash or in kind, monitoring the functioning of the judiciary, etc. He also had the power to grant stipends to brilliant students and appoint magistrates.

This. Mir Saman: He was the head of the department that supplied the equipment needed for the kingdom and the palace, the office of Mirchaman had administrative control over the various factories established in the country. His office was equipped with various types of equipment.

It has already been said that all the above mentioned four ministers were considered as pillars of the kingdom. During Akbar's time, all those who were Dinamas and Wazirs had equal heuda and floor. Apart from these, the central government chiefs who could be elected were Kwaji (Chief Justice), Raghi (Secret Information, Printer of Rane), Muhalanil (Conservator of Moral Values) and Mere Atish (Artillery Officer).

Thus, during the Mughal era, the central government had centralized features, with the emperor acting as the authoritative chief executive officer.

The government is military in nature due to the patchwork system. Every worker had to serve in the army. Munsabudari system was one of the most important features of the Mughal system of governance. Aucher introduced this system to equip the cavalry as a part of the army. Manapal Heuda was given as the nominal commander of some cavalry. An officer holding this rank was called 'Monbadar'. The number of Ashviks under Munasab Darula can be from 10 to 5000. There were bargains based on numerical strength. Based on this, the salary of government employees is determined. An official's tenure is limited to his lifetime. It is a pedigree car. Their appointment and promotion are subject to the prerogative of the Emperor. The soldiers under the patronage of the Munsadar provided necessary assistance to the Emperor and the service of the country. They were paid in cash for their services. Thus the Munsabs held all the important posts and were instrumental in maintaining the royal crown. Munsabs played a significant role in Mughal rule by holding civil and military posts together.

During the Mughal era, the army was divided into four divisions namely infantry, cavalry, infantry and artillery. In this, a strong armed force was kept in the capital and under the direct authority of the emperor. There were some flaws in the Mughal military system. It was essentially a national army and a combination of different forces. Soldiers were directly subordinate to the emperor and loyal to their immediate superiors. That is why the Mughals suffered a lot due to the 200 mistakes made by the soldiers in the subsequent wars.

Revenue Administration: The Mughal government raised resources by taxing the people as much as possible. The burden of indirect taxes was higher than direct taxes in government revenue. During this period the sources of revenue can be divided into central and local sources. Land sistu, jizya, zakat, gamalu, customs, salt tax etc. were central resources, while transport, trade, profession tax etc. were local resources, land sistu was the major part of the total resources. The Mughals recognized the agriculturists' ownership of the land. Akbar's minister, Todaramal Kumi, introduced many reforms in tax development, land measurement, land stratification and land surveying. The highlights of this are to decide. A direct tax to the government from the cultivator. Had to pay. A third of the produce was paid to the government as tax. There were exemptions in tax collection if crops were damaged. Rules have been framed for the grant of seeds and appropriate loans to the agriculturists.

Judiciary: During the Mughal era, justice was given importance to the king as it was his main duty to do justice to the people. Judiciary operates on the basis of Islamic law. There were various courts ranging from the lower court at the pargana level to the highest court at the central level. The emperor acted as the supreme judge. In the emperor's court there was a system of courts called 'Adalat'. The head of the justice department was Pradhan Quazi. This method was also used in the Subals and Sarkars.. The head of the Judiciary at the state level was called Kwani-e-Suba and at the district level as Quazi-e-Sarkar. In the parganas and towns there were quazis as doctors. Various jurists assisted the Emperor in making decisions. In those days there were special judicial positions in relation to revenue also.

State Government: During the Mughal period, the state government was similar to the central government. For ease of administration the empire was divided into subals (states). The number of these varied from time to time. The administration of the state was centered in the state capital.

Subedaru: 

The head of the state was called Subedaru. He was appointed by the Emperor's 'Farmana'. Their duties and activities are explained in the order appointing them. He used to act as the chief administrator in the state. His main duties were to maintain peace in the state, enforce royal decrees, and assist in collecting taxes. The army of the state was under him. He also had judicial powers. Other chiefs of the state were subject to his control.

Diwan: 

Diwan was the second position in the state after Subedaru. As much power as the Subedaru had in executive matters, the DI had as much power in financial matters. He is chosen by the central diva. He works according to his orders. Corresponds with him. His main duties are revenue collection, settlement of land disputes and development of agriculture. There were four officers namely Peshkar, Daroga and Munsish Tahsildar to assist the Diwa in the performance of his duties.

Bakshmi was responsible for military affairs and intelligence in each state to Mir Bakshi at the state level. He used to send reports to Mirakshi about the activities of various superiors. He was also responsible for implementing the Munasabri system.

Sadr: 

He was responsible for the religious affairs of the state.

His other duties include providing financial assistance to the needy and the educated

Quazi: 

At the state level, the judiciary was under the jurisdiction of Quazi. Although in some cases ecclesiastical jurisprudence was included, it was not uncommon for these two offices to have separate officers. District Administration: During the Mughal period, Subals (states), Sarkars (districts), Sarkars

Divided into 'Parganas'. Decisions on these number boundaries are frequent from time to time

were changing. The important officials in the government were the Fouldar, Amir, Kotwal, and Quazi.

Fawzar: 

The executive officer of 'Sarkar' is called Fouldar. He may be referred to as the Subedaru in the district. His main duties are to maintain peace in the district, in administrative matters and in revenue collection. Some armed forces were also under his control. His other duties include guarding the roads, arresting gangs of robbers and suppressing rebellions.

Amir is the next official in Amir's government after Fauldar. He used to run under the direction of the State Diwan, the revenue officer in the district. His main duties are to support agricultural development in the district, to provide loan facilities to farmers, to know the condition of the people, to collect census data and to report information to the government regarding various aspects.

Kotwal: 

He used to perform police duties and powers in the cities and towns of the Mughal Empire. He also performed legal duties. Maintaining peace and security, preventing theft, list of houses and roads in the 🌆

His main duties include managing, catching thieves, checking weights and measures, settling criminal cases. Quazi: He used to administer the judicial and religious affairs at the district level. In addition to these religious tax collections like 'Jiziya' and 'Zakat' are for the poor

The allocated funds were under his control.

Pargana Palavah A collection of some villages was treated as Pargana. Pargana can be mentioned as the most important center of administration after Sarkar. There were three chief officers in the pargana system of administration. They were Shinhar, an executive officer, Amir, a revenue officer, and Kwamango, a survey officer. Shir used to perform the duties of Fouktar and Kotwa at the government level in the parganas. Ameel and Kwanungo used to carry out activities related to land survey and revenue collection. Another headman at the pargana level was the Khwazi appointed for administration.

Village governance: The Mughals did not interfere in the day-to-day affairs of the villages. Villages were self-sufficient. The maintenance of law and order was also done by the panchayat institutions. The Gramadhiman was responsible for general supervision, settlement of disputes, revenue collection and police duties in the village. The ganaku of the village was called patwari. He used to review the deeds of the agriculturists and the pattern of crops.

There was a vast system of governance during the Mughal period. The system of governance has centralized characteristics with the emperor acting as the authoritative chief executive officer. The Mughals also maintained a strong state system compared to the ancient Indian system. They did not interfere in the daily affairs of the villages. Hence historians believe that the autonomy of the villages was preserved to some extent. During their time, unified governance system, coins and official language were in operation. There was efficient agricultural management, seed management and administration of justice. The characteristics of consolidated revenue administration of those days continue even today.

British rule

The English who came to India for business in AD. By the end of 1600, the East India Association was established by a grant from the British government. Before the British, the Portuguese, Dutch and French were doing business here. After them Defeated in many battles, the East India Company established its supremacy by 1773. Apart from business activities, it also gradually started acquiring territories.

In the two hundred years that the British ruled our country, India was ruled by the East India Company for ten years, i.e. from 1757 to 1858. Later, from 1858 until independence in 1947, the British government was represented by the Viceroy. Rule continued through the Governor General. A representative appointed by the British Government to act as Governor-General for the states of British India (Punjab, Bengal, Bombay Madras, United Provinces) and as the Viceroy's representative of the British Queen to oversee the affairs of the rest of India's indigenous territories.

Britishe's

Governor General

1. Warren Hastings.                   1772-85

2. Caron Wallis.                            1786-93

3)     Sir John shor                         1793-98                     

4. Lord Wellesley.                          1798-1805

5. George Barlow.                        1805-1807

6. Lord is the first minto.            1807-13

7. Lord Hastings.                          1813-23

8) Lord Amrest.                             1823-28

9. William Bentinck.                     1828-35

10. Lord Auckland.                         1836-42

11. Lord Ellen Borough.               1842-44

12. Sir Henry Hardinge.               1844-48

13. Lord Dalhousie                       1848-56

14. Lord Canning                          1856-57

Govarner General, Viceroy

1. Lord Canning.                          1857-62

2 First Lord Elgin                         1862-63

3.Sir John Lawrence.                    1864-69

4. Lord Mayo.                                  1869-72

5. Lord Northbrook                      1872-76

6. Lord Lytton.                                  1876-80

7. Lord Rippon.                                   1880-84

 8) sir John Lawrence.                        1884-88

9. Lord Lance Down.                           1888-94

10. Lord Elgin — II.                              1894-99

11. Lord Curzon.                                1899-1905

12. Lord Minto In                              1905-1910

13. Lord Hardinge- II                           1910-16

14) Lord Chemps Ford.                          1916-21

15. Lord Reading.                                  1921-26

16. Lord Irvine.                                      1926-31

17. Lord Welling Dunn.                        1931-36

18. Lord Lynath.                                     1936-43

19. Lord Wavell.                                     1943-47

20. Lord Mountbatten

1947 February - 1948 August

21. Rajagopalachari of Emperors.     1948-1950

East India Company rule  

Initially it was done in company governance and business model. The board of directors had policy making powers. Government activities were divided into various departments and each department had a special secretary and a chief secretary who had authority over all of them. The states had a State Liaison Secretary and a Sub-Secretary. Through boards with few members

The rule was going on. This is evidenced by the wide-ranging revenue board established in Madras state in 1803.

In 1786, the district was recognized as an administrative unit. A District Collector has been appointed for each district with the authority to perform the duties of Revenue Collector and RG Magistrate. Later the powers of the Magistrate were separated from the District Collector. That is, there were three chief officers in the district namely District Collector, District Magistrate and District Judge. In 1859 this decision was changed and the functions of District Collector and District Magistrate were merged. That is, since then every district had two principals namely Collector, Magistrate and District Judge. The same practice continues today.

The directors of the company nominated officers from the Covenanted Civil Service to all important posts in the administration of the government. This service became the root cause of ICS which was formed later. Realizing the importance of civil services training, the Civil Services Training Institute was established. It provided well-educated and competent administrators.

In 1833, the company was transformed from a semi-commercial organization into a fully-fledged governing body. In 1854, the Lord Macaulay Committee recommended competitive examinations to fill civil service posts, and the British Civil Service Commission conducted these competitive examinations.

Started organizing. Still the basic laws in administration of justice are Indian Penal Code (LP.C) Criminal Procedure Code (Cr.P.C), Civil Procedure Code (C.P.C) Evidence Act.

Ac) Bequeathed to us by British rule.

The Governor General does not extend the power to the State Governments under the Company's rule. led to centralized governance. The formation of the Secretariat Governing Board helps in policy making and governance oversight. With the establishment of departments like Irrigation, Agriculture, Education, Public Works, etc., the government was enabled to undertake public development programs. A large team of employees at various levels is required for the management of government activities. Strengthening of the district administration, recruitment of civil services through competitive examinations, systematic training arrangements for higher officials can also be mentioned as important developments in company governance.

 

Conquering large areas in India and consolidating them. East India Company's main ambition. Robertson laid the foundation for the company's rule. The efforts of Governor Generals like Warren Hastings, Caron Wallis, Wellesley, William Bentinck, Dalhousie etc. contributed to expansion and stability. By 1858, the whole of India came under its control. But in 1857 there was a rebellion of sepoys against the company rule. It can be termed as the first Indian War of Independence. Kondaru described it as a rebellion of feudal and religious classes against western civilization. This contributed to important changes in the regime, which brought about rebellion, distress and revelation for the British. Consequently, they made important changes in the policies of regional rulers, landlords, military and financial affairs. It was determined that the process of westernization should not be hastened. One of the causes of rebellion was the ignorance of public opinion, and the values of public opinion were identified. Over time, the widespread employee ownership established by the company led to corruption and governance was transferred from the company to the British Crown.

British Government Palava Features Centralized Palava; Shades of centralization in British rule were seen in the Regulating Act of 1773. This act helped to establish a unified system of governance for the entire country of India. Through this act, the Governor General was appointed as the head of government in India. Pitt's India Act (1784), established a Board of Control in England, which was given full powers to supervise and control the Government of India. It functioned as a government department. Its president was the Cabinet Minister Hugh, and the Company's directors remained a nominal body only. The Act of 1833 revoked the Company's right to trade marks and stopped its commercial activities altogether. This Act introduced a centralized system of government and deprived the states of legislative power. The Governor General of Bengal, Huda, was elevated as Governor General of India and his government was referred to as the Government of India.

Started. The authority of that government also applied to the British territories. Held in 1857

After the Sepoy Mutiny the British Government through the Government of India Act 1856,

Received directly from the company to the Government of India. 2. The Secretary of State for India created the position of Crap (India) from controlling the company. On transfer, the Secretary of State of India became a member of the British Council. The Act of 1919 empowered the British Parliament to supervise, direct and control the affairs of the British Parliament in relation to Indian affairs. Every legislative act restricted to the central and state governments had to be approved by him.

The 1919 Act divided the school between the Union states to make Indians participants. The states were given public health, education, local governments, agriculture etc. The center has land management, police, law and order, railways and tribal affairs. This gave some autonomy to the states.

Laws

1850 Queen Victoria's Proclamation established the sovereignty of the British Monarchy over all the Company's territories through the Government of India Act. A Minister of State was appointed to carry on the administration of India. A council was formed to help him. By this the British Queen assumed the title of Empress of India. Through the proclamation, the British Government assumed the responsibility of protecting the property rights and inheritance rights of the people of India. This declaration introduced secularism, freedom of religion and property rights in India and provided equal opportunities to all without discrimination of race, religion and caste in government jobs.

1862  The Indian Legislature Act: This act consolidated the powers of the Governor General and empowered the Governors of Bombay and Madras to make laws and regulations. The power to appoint the Chief of Army Staff of India as an extraordinary member of the Executive Council was given to the Secretary of State. By this Act, lawyers

was removed from the legislative structure. The power to issue ordinances in emergency situations was given to the Governor General. 

Councils Act 1892: 

The Governor General's Legislative Council curtailed the Governor General's power to nominate members of state governors' councils and allowed non-official members to enter the council by indirect election. For the first time in India by this Act

Elections were introduced.

1909 Indian Councils Act: Known as the Chattam, Minto Marley reforms. By this Act the name of Central Legislative Council was changed to Imperial Legislative Council. For the first time, this Act allowed the formation of separate constituencies for Muslims on the basis of religion.

Government of India Act 1919 The Government of India Act 1919 was known as the Montague Bemsford Reforms. This Act brought into force the bicameral system at the Center for the first time. This act introduced dual governance in the provinces. 1935 Government of India Act 1935 Government of India Act 321 Articles, 13.

There are schedules. The Act of 1935 was the most important of all the Acts introduced by the British Government.

(even on our Constitution) the impact of the 1935 Act is very visible.

Central list - 59 items, state list 54 items, 36 items with common list have been mentioned in this act. Legislative powers have been given to the Governor General on these three issues. The post of Federal Court, Federal Railway Authority, Economic Adviser and Advocate General were created by this act. 1935 The British Parliament was empowered to amend the Government of India Act.

Indian Independence Act 1947 : This Act is known as Mountbatten Plan. It was the basis for the partition (plan) of India. This Act was passed by the British Parliament on 5th July 1947. British Queen Assent on 18th July 1947. This Act came into force on 15 August 1947. The post of India Secretary was abolished.

1935 Act led to decentralization of governance in India. The act also granted a large degree of autonomy to the state governments. Responsible government was introduced at the state level, however the British government maintained a centralized system. Even the few administrative reforms they introduced were in their interests. 

Elaborate kingdom system: The East India Company initially functioned with the help of two committees and departments. They are: Secret Committee, Select Committee, Tarwani Public Department and Commerce Department were formed for some time. Four-member councils were formed to assist the Governor-General in administration. Later public, secret and revenue departments were converted into a single department. After that, the military department was also joined. In 1833 there were customs, salt, Persian and religious departments. In 1835 the Legislature Department was established in 1843 the Finance Department. Since then, a comprehensive system of governance has also been established along with the establishment of branches. The nature of the activities of the central government has changed a little since 1919 and a lot since 1935. Departments like Industries, Labor, Underground, Mining, Electricity, Factories etc. were set up. World War II forced the creation of departments for war information, food, planning, civil supplies, etc. In 1945 the number of branches at the center increased to 19. Thus the British government ruled the country with an elaborate system of governance and strong worker ownership. The state was generally repressive in nature and adopted ruthless methods to enforce ruling orders. It is true that the same system of governance is used today to suppress those who disagree with the rulers.

Justice; Another feature of British rule was the introduction of egalitarian rule in the country. As a result of the liberal sentiments that spread throughout the world in the 19th-20th centuries, colonial rulers were forced to introduce egalitarianism in India. The statutes were codified rather than the earlier governments. Statutes are framed to prevent abuse of government power. The spread of the idea that power should be fair in the 19th century contributed to this.

Palava as a unit district: The states were large during the British rule. The colonial rulers divided the states into different districts in order to get as much land as possible. In 1786, the district was recognized as an administrative unit. Collector was appointed as District Governor. All the departments at the district level were working under him. Still in the country, the District Chief Administrative Unit, the post of District Collector was established in 1772. Due to the initiative shown by Warren Hastings, the post of Collector gained prominence. The rules proposed by him made the district an administrative unit headed by a collector. Many powers have been provided to the Ranura collector system. His main duties are to maintain law and order and land survey were The District Collector is considered as the main representative of the Government. He used to act as a district level police officer and judge. The same method is still followed with minor modifications.

Local Government: After the Sepoy Mutiny there were changes in the attitude of the British rulers. Several steps were taken to get the consent of the people of the country to continue the colonial rule. Making Indians partners in governance is one of them. Accordingly, local governments were formed. The British government established local bodies based on the ancient Indian rural system with some modifications. 186 Allocate departments and functions like education public works to panchayat institutions based on Shameye Tirmana. It was recognized that people have the power to govern themselves. Lord Ripson's judgment of May 18, 1882 can be termed as a great milestone in the formation of local bodies. Through this, self-governance, election management, decentralization of duties etc. were introduced in the rural areas. The Councils Act of 1909 was a three-tiered system. Anger recommended.

1. Gram Panchayat, 2, Regional Tehsil, 3, District Board suggested. In urban areas, Madras in 1688 and Calcutta in 1765 were incorporated as corporations.

1919 Monteng Lessford Reforms Greater powers for local bodies

It has recommended to allocate and reduce central and state government control. Election

It suggested to strengthen the local institutions through

It can be said that local governments came into existence with Lord Ripson's resolution in 1882. Establishment of local self-government through elections. Highlights of the resolution include reducing the dominance of government officials over local bodies, greater fiscal decentralization, and formation of local self-governing bodies at various levels.

Civil Services: It can be said that the British Government was the first to introduce competitive examinations in India through an independent organization.

The British rulers introduced many new trends to the Indian administrative system. After independence, many aspects of governance introduced by the British were considered beneficial by the rulers of India and continued some policies.

happened They include all India service, civil service, new administration of police system, district administration, secretariat system, recruitment, training, budget preparation, accounting auditing etc.

Organized Civil Service: The East India Company recognized the need for an organized civil service to protect its interests and increase revenues. In 1861, the Indian Civil Service (ICS) Act was passed. Competitive examinations from 1855 to fill posts in the civil service following the recommendation of the Lord Macaulay Committee. Started organizing. In the ICS multi-purpose civil service center, they hold all the important posts in the government administration in the states. They were appointed as District Judges and High Court Buddies. The I.C.S contributed to the consolidation of the British Empire above all, the centralization of the states and the integrity of the administration. That is why it is called as steel frame for British rule in India. After independence, the need for such service was recognized and replaced by IAS. In 1888, the Civil Services Reorganization Commission headed by Charles Ason recommended that the civil services be divided into three parts, the Indian Civil Services, the State Services and the Subordinate Services. In 1924, the Sri Kapishan (L.em Commission) appointed 20 per cent of the higher administrative posts in the State Civil Services for good promotion. It suggested that 40 percent of the remaining 80 percent should be recruited from Indians and 40 percent from Europeans through direct recruitment. Following the recommendations of this commission, the Central Public Service Commission was established in India for the first time in 1926. The Federal Public Service Commission under the Government of India Act of 1935 was changed to the Union Public Service under the Constitution of India. A seamless change in governance

Let us mention the characteristics and changes of the British system which continued unbroken till the time of India's independence.

The British rulers divided India on the basis of caste, religion and region. After independence India's governance system had to face many problems due to the partition of the country. Communal strife erupted in the country, refugee resettlement action The first problem faced by the governing system was the migration of many Muslim officers, the resignation of European officers, and the second problem was the increase in the responsibility of the governing system due to inflation, uncertain situation in the supply of food grains, Kshasulu, etc. in the 1940s, and the merger of various indigenous institutions became another problem.

Continuing Regimes: After independence, 

1) he British regime still continued in the country's governance system. They are mentioned below.

2) Centralized system of governance is one of the characteristics of ongoing governance.

3)The Secretariat plays a prominent role in policy making at the Center and in the State To be continued..

4)Establishment of IAS, IPS in place of ICS, conduct of competitive examinations in civil service selection.

5)Selection of Civil Services at Center and States through Public Service Commission. To give a prominent place to the Collector in the administration of the district.

6)Empowering people to participate in governance through local governments,

7. Administrative processes, especially office rules, employee bond rules, etc., still continue with little change. Factors related to changes

Due to the formation of parliamentary system in the states in the center, the administration is subordinated to the ministers who are responsible to the legislature.. By dividing the powers between the central states, the constitution is federal in nature 

3)The number of ministries, department head offices, other government offices and government employees has increased tremendously as the central and state governments have taken up the planning policy and development activities. With the emergence of many public sector organizations and self-governing organizations, the governance has become an unbearable burden.

India

4. | The administration of the district has also undergone many changes. There has also been a change in the duties of collectors. Collectors are forced to carry out many development schemes without regular duties like maintaining law and order and collecting taxes. There has also been a noticeable change in the recruitment of civil services. Center and State

5)Special protections for backward classes through reservation in employment at the level

6. Given. Panchayat Raj organization was established to involve the people in development activities.

Recognizing the need for governance reforms, governance reform societies and other committees formed by the central and state governments have tried many changes in governance.

Thus the governance of India can be said to be an amalgamation of unbroken changes

The British rulers ruled India for almost two decades by establishing a strong system of governance. They developed a highly centralized employer system. It goes without saying that the British rule was for the protection of their interests. Not interested in development programs. Cottage industries in the economy have broken the self-sufficient village economy. They gave importance to orderly governance like revenue, police and judiciary rather than developmental governance. Due to this, the country has been crippled both in the agricultural sector and in the industrial sector. For a long time all the superiors in the civil services were Europeans Appointed. By this their supremacy over the Indian people increased. A professional, robust and integrated civil service system was developed to protect the colonial position.

But the system of governance we inherited from the British rule. Some critics are of the view that India's governance still retains many of the features of colonial rule, despite many changes over time and in view of changing needs. Hence the Indian system of governance can be said to be an amalgamation of inextricable changes. The governance system still needs to mature.